Articles |Free articles | online articles: November 2013

Economic Policy

The new economic policy of the united states should include cutting taxes, reducing governmental waste, and balance the budget by having a smaller more efficient federal government. It should include equal opportunity for financial security but not through a government sponsored redistribution of wealth program. Cutting taxes across the board including income tax rates, capital gains and estate taxes among others should provide a growth spurt for the economy. Allowing people and businesses to keep more of their hard earned money would enable them to spend more money. People would be able to buy more cars, refrigerators, homes etc. The businesses would be able to build new factories with better more efficient high tech equipment. These new factories and expanded businesses would employee more highly paid workers which would expand the tax base and allow us to be more competitive in the world marketplace. Reducing the taxes would also motivate people to work harder and save more. The way things are now people can not seem to get ahead no matter how hard they work. The harder they work the more the government takes while others who choose not to work hard or have not developed the skills to earn a decent wage reap the same and in many cases more benefits. For example student loans and grants for college board and tuition fees are largely unavailable to lower middle class families let alone middle and upper middle class people. Reducing taxes on businesses would also allow them to invert more on new product development and research which in many instances the federal government now subsidizes which requires management. This government management bureaucracy cost tax payers money and is unnecessary because free market demands and the extra money they would save from tax cuts would motivate businesses to fund these programs themselves. This is just an example of what a smaller more efficient federal government. "Citizens in the united states today pay 38.2 percent of there income in taxes every year" (RNC Talking Points). This is way to much money for Americans to be paying. "Cutting everyone's taxes by 15 percent and giving them a 500 dollar per child tax credit would cut a typical families tax bill in half, allowing them to keep an average of $1,600 more of its hard-earned money"(RNC Talking Points). The question is often asked as it was in the recent presidential election, how can we balance the budget and have significant tax cuts? There are several ways in which the government can cut taxes while maintaining worthwhile government subsidized programs, which will be discussed in this paper. To have funded tax cuts the government will have to cut spending by eliminating waste and by reforming while preserving needed entitlement programs such as Welfare, Social Security and Medicare though slowing the rate of growth in spending on them. As quoted in a Business Week editorial "Cutting the growth in Medicare spending by $150 billion would help open the way for a truly balanced budget, lower interest rates and higher economic growth" (A Vote for a Sensible Center 194). To eliminate waste the government will have to cut programs that are no longer needed and programs that overlap each other. "The federal government today has 163 separate job training programs, 26 food programs and 180 educational programs. The government needs to eliminate some, consolidate some and change others" (The Balance Sheet). The government can also cut waste by cutting the amount of money that some of the governmental agencies receive for example the "Republicans want to cut funding for the Commerce Department and the department of Urban Development budget by $715 million, Foreign Aid by 11.5 percent, Defense budget by $6 billion and the congresses budget by $205 million" (The Balance Sheet). They can also reduce waste by spending money more wisely which can be accomplished by reforming some of the government agencies such as welfare, Social Security and Head Start. One proposal inparticular seems fair and powerful "New York senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan has been pushing for several years- a recalculation of the consumer price index so that it no longer triggers a higher-than-necessary cost of living adjustment in Social Security checks and other entitlement. That fix along with companion reduction in other programs tied to the consumer price index would save $1 trillion over the next twelve years" (A Very Good Place to Start 70). By reducing waste the government will be able to increase funding for programs that are needed, and put our hard earned tax dollars to good use. There are many programs that need to be increased, the first is Social Security because our senior citizens need money to live on when they retire. Second is Medicare because its important to the health care of our seniors. Third, Student Loans because young people need higher education to get good jobs and compete with the rest of the world. Fourth is Law enforcement, law enforcement is an essential part of modern society. Fifth, Medical research And Health to make life better and find cures to deadly diseases. Sixth the Job Training because it helps to get people job which reduces the number of people on welfare. Next, Food and Nutrition will help women, infant and children program (WIC), and the school lunch program. Last the National Parks we need to save the wonders of our beautiful country. The Republican national committee says "the government needs to pass a balance the budget amendment to the constitution ensuring that the federal budget stays balanced and that Washington no longer continue to pile more and more debt on our children and grandchildren, mortgaging their future" (RNC Talking Points 1). At one time our country had a very small debt and "no other currency on earth was as 'Sound As The Dollar'" (The National Debt 1). Now the national debt is five trillion dollars and climbing and the dollar is not nearly as strong. To keep inflation and interest rates from rising the government needs to balance the budget; "As seen during the Carter presidency when inflation skyrocketed and interest rates hovered near 20%" (The National Debt 2). If the inflation increases and interest rates rises it will slow the economy down because no one will be able to afford to buy anything or barrow money. Cutting taxes across the board will not just give people more money but will benefit the economy. By cutting taxes citizens as well as business will be able to keep more of their money they worked so hard to get. By cutting taxes this will also allow people to buy things that they can not afford now because taxes are so high. The business will not only have more money from tax cuts but they will have more money from citizens buying more highly priced items. With this money the business will be able to invest in building new factories and new products, which will in turn make more high paying jobs for the for the hard working American people. By cutting governmental waste they will be able to spend more on the entitlement programs that are truly needed. Cutting waste will also ease the task of Balancing the budget which will ensure that the debt does not continue to grow at an unsubstainable rate. Balancing the budget will help ensure that inflation and interest rates remain at an affordable rate.

Economic ReformPolicy Mix

Question: What role do governments have in modern mixed economies such as Australia? Using appropriate indicators (macro economic aggregates) outline the present state of the economy. In what ways is the Commonwealth government using fiscal and monetary policies to influence the Australian economy? What are the main features of the government's micro economic policy? Why is the government concerned about microeconomic reform? Synopsis: The role of government in Australia today has less influence on the market than they did a decade ago. It function now is to provide a stable internal and external balance under which the market can function. This is achieved through the use of fiscal, monetary and microeconomic reform. Australia currently operates under a mixed economic system. This means that the government has partial control over the economy and has the ability to influence the markets. Recent moves by the government that shows the government's role in the economy to be shrinking includes the privatisation of government business enterprises (GBE) and deregulation of the financial market. The main roles that the Australian government plays today are to ensure: 1) The efficient and even distribution of income (though CSSB, tax) 2) Provide a limited range of goods and services (Aust post) 3) General economic management through macro and micro economic policies. In 96/97 the CAD fell to $20.9bn from the $27bn blowout during 95/96. This was largely due to a fall in domestic spending which lead to a slight rise in national savings. Inflation remained low and fell between the RBA's 2-3% target. This gave way to the RBA's 3 consecutive drops in interest rates to stimulate the economy. Economic growth has stabilised between 3-4%. Although this is a reasonable figure, a higher growth rate is required if unemployment is to fall from the 8.6% is has averaged for the past year. Overall economic performance has been reasonable but current figures show the problems with our external balance and unemployment will not be solved any time soon. Fiscal policy is the government's use of the Budget to achieve its economic management goals. This is done through revenue collection and government spending. In recent years there has been a shift away from the Keynesian view that fiscal policy is used to stabilise short-term fluctuations in demand. This refers to a contractionary stance during a boom period to dampen economy and an expansionary stance during a bust period to stimulate the economy. Current fiscal policies are aimed at the medium and long-term goals of resource allocation, income distribution and external balance. This is because fiscal policy is relatively inflexible and is adjusted on an annual basis. One of the government's objectives in using fiscal policy is to reduce the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR). To do this the government has had a $3.9bn cut in discretionary spending during the 96/97 budget. This cut may be the first of several in a bid to achieve a budget surplus. One reason behind this goal is to maintain external stability. For the past decade (except for the late 80's boom) the public debt has been on a continual rise. This was largely due to a succession of budget deficits. The result of this was a large increase in net income as a component of the current account, which in turn became a burden on the next budget. A surplus budget can be used to pay of the public debt thereby easing interest obligations. At the same time a reduction in the deficit will increase national savings. By reducing the deficit, the government does not need as much national savings in order to finance the budget. This will leave a larger pool of savings to fund investment. Although a contractionary fiscal stance will increase public saving, they may decrease private savings. Cuts in government spending to programs aimed at increasing private savings (such as Austudy) have meant that the private sector must cover the costs, forgoing saving opportunities. This will mean a lower level of private savings but not enough to offset the increase in public saving. On the whole national saving increases. Due to the multiplier effect, a reduction in government spending will impact the level of economic activity. The recent cut in government spending has dampened aggregate demand. This in turn produced low levels of inflation and economic growth. By reducing the amount of government participation in the market, it hopes to achieve the 'crowding in' effect. This means that the private sector will invest in functions that the government once provided (CES facilities). Monetary policy is the raising or lowering of interest rates to dampen or stimulate the economy. It is concerned with internal balance (ie. economic activity, employment and price stability). Unlike fiscal policy, monetary policies influence the economy indirectly through changes in financial conditions. This follows the belief that the level of financial activity plays a major role in determining the level of economic activity. The main indicator of monetary policy stance is the level of short-term interest rates. The government is currently using monetary policy to boost the level of economic activity. By easing interest rates the private sector will be more inclined to borrow money for investment. Small businesses will expand and this should lead to an increase in employment opportunities and a decreasing unemployment rate. A fall in interest rates will also increase the level of spending in the economy. This is due to the increase in the availability of credit. A boost in spending increases aggregate demand followed by an increase in retail sales but will also fuel inflation. Interest rate drops in the latter half of the year has not had much effect on the economy. Economic growth slowed to 3%, investment dell from 17% to 10% between 94/95 and 95/96, profit growth fell from 16% to 3%, unemployment rose from 8.4% to 8.8%, the growth of retail sales has slowed and both business sentiment and consumer confidence has fallen. This poor performance may be attributed to the reduction of government spending during the 96/97 budget. Only inflation managed to drop to the RBA's target of 2-3% underlying inflation. New figures released in early March 97 show an increase in retail sales and economic activity. This may be a response to the drop in interest rates from the previous year. Microeconomic reforms (MER) are initiatives taken by the government to improve resource allocation and efficiency. By doing so they improve productivity, international competitiveness, economic efficiency and long-run economic growth. A growing economy provides an environment in which the success of MER is high. The government uses macroeconomic policies to provide this type of environment. There are three main objectives to MER, they are: 1) To raise the supply potential of the economy. This will lead to higher economic growth, domestic demand and living standards. 2) Reduction in interference with price signals in the labour and product markets to enhance economic efficiency, competition and lower inflationary pressures. 3) To facilitate the stabilisation of external debt and to reduce the demand for domestic savings without lowering living standards. The government currently aims to internationalise the domestic economy. Their aim is to promote greater competition by exposing businesses to the international market and to encourage innovation and flexibility. Tariff reforms are a part of this process. These programs are to reduce protection to industries that are deemed inefficient and to allocate funds to other causes. The Garnaut Report released in 1989 proposed that all tariffs should be gradually eliminated. This will allow enterprises to take advantage of economies of scale. There have been plans to provide long term solutions to the trade imbalance. The government now place emphases on producing manufactured tradeable that provide a more stable export base to replace the volatile commodity markets. Greater diversification of products and more productive rather than speculative capital inflow have also been emphasised. Before internationalising the economy, there must first be an efficient domestic market structure in Australia. MER has been introduced to the domestic economy to increase the international competitiveness of our industries and its workers. Fiscal reform seeks to reduce the budget deficit to 1 percent of GDP. To do this, tax reforms were introduced. These were aimed at increasing economic incentives and creating a better environment for business investment. GBEs were also targeted for their inefficiencies. The aim was to ensure cost effective production of goods and services and that prices charged reflected the cost of supply. It is estimated that a $9bn increase in GDP would occur if GBE inefficiencies were eliminated. Part of the Hilmer Report is based on reforming GBEs at a national level. The proposals included: - Placing GBEs under the Trade Practice Act. - Structural reform of public monopolies. - Regulation of pricing. - Competition neutrality between GBEs and the private sector pricing structure. These reforms are paying off with lowered costs, improved productivity, and improved returns but the reform process has been slow. Problems such as a low level of labour productivity and high domestic cost structure have seen labour market reform to be focusing on enterprise bargaining. This process allows for individual workplace agreements and wage increases are more in line with economic circumstances and productivity improvements. Enterprise bargaining is seen by the government as the key to labour productivity improvements. MER has had significant achievements in the economy. Significant improvements have been made in particular areas such as maintaining a highly skilled future workforce, and productivity improvements in the waterfront and shipping industry. There is a down side to MER. Job loss has risen as reforms are implemented; displaced workers usually lack the skills required for employment in other industries. This leads to a growth in the rate of structurally unemployed. Reforms will also increase inequalities in income distribution; workers relying on safety net wage rises will be disadvantaged to those who have formal agreements. The government is concerned about these factors but believe that MER was not designed to fix social issues. They believe its function is to improve productivity in key industries that will benefit the economy as a whole. In the 90's, the government's role in the economy is shrinking. Its main function is to provide a stable environment in which the market can function. To achieve this, the government uses a policy mix containing fiscal, monetary and MER which implemented in conjunction with one another will provide a platform where Australian firms can compete successfully in the international market.

Ethics in Business 5

From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner is both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these. The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldnt distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employees is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis. The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez, 53). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they arent too likely to open their mouths. (113). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse an employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts. The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isnt the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused. The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of For the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude. As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor. In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word, it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman, 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez, 54). Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could taken. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization. This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer, 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense lead them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman, 118). The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society. To conclude, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions. Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that require too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts. In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison.

Ethics In Business 2

Ethics in Business

Ethical Economics

Nicholas Grosz Mr. Burke Econ 3/1/00 ETHICAL ECONOMICS? The term ethical and economics should never be put into the same sentance. They are almost oxymoronic in the sense that in order for one to succeed on an economic level, ethics are usually never involved. America as we have come to know it is a world full of mice and snakes. The mice are those in society who voluntarily choose to live off of the prosperous, as the snakes go out and get their prey. The capitalistic society we live in known as America is truly what we make of it. The standards and principles of America's capitalism are truly ethical and fair. One is reminded of the Darwinian theory of evolution that only the strong survive. Those who do not provide for themselves will be left to "die" in American society. The American economic society that we have come to know and love is truly fair and equal on all levels. Since the end of Feudalism, America has lived up to it's reputation as a Capitalistic society. The True Market System kick-started the freedom of possibilities of capitalism. The right to private property, choice, voluntary exchange, comptetition, and economic incentives are what we thrive towards every day. With the incorporation of voluntary exchange and competition, American's were forced to go out into the world and produce in order to survive and make a profit, much different than traditional economics when a child would inherit his father's work. Economic Incentives, better known as profit, lead to a broader array of choices that we are able to make as free-minded Americans. The comparison between Socialist and Free Market economies show us how truly eithical and fair America's economic system truly is. Resources in a Socialistic Economic system are government owned and regulated, which in turn, the government determines what and how much of "what" will be produced. The capital from the government owned goods is then distributed among the general population, thus totally eliminating inequality and Capitalism. So no matter how talented/gifted one is, he is just as valuable to his family and friends as the guy that makes my French Fries at McDonald's. A wide disparity exists among people in the United States. Our free market economy provides us with the ability to prosper and soar above our competitors. Resources are privately owned which clears the way for voluntary exchange. The role of the government in America's Free Market economy is to help ensure that everything runs smoothly with minimal interference. The fair economic system that we live in provides for a wide disparity among the rich and the poor, which in turn provides for a better trade market among the customer and consumer. The circular flow model is a perfect example as to how the American economic system flows among different levels in society. Land, labor, and capital are equally distributed and fairly regualted among the Factor market, households, businesses, products, and the government. The sytem of Economics in the United States of America is balanced and geared towards the citizen, not the government. Hamilton's development of the U.S. Economic system served as a blueprint for America to follow for the coming years. The national bank, taxes, debt, and loans are all perfect examples of how the people choose their own paths in life. They were/are responsible for their finances, rather than allowing them to be regulated by the government. The incorporation of Specialization allowed for a more service oriented society. Those who are qualified to perform a certain task are able to thrive in America's economic system. Absolute advantage and monopolies play a huge role in free market economics, allowing the seller to control his/her own destiny. The widespread availability of goods alotted the customer to shop around. The disparity of prices among the buyer and seller are constantly being regulated by Adam Smith's theory of the Invisible Hand-the idea that prices are automatically regulated among sellers and consumers from a supply and demand standpoint. America's truly Capitalistic nature is thrown into question by the alarming difference between the have's and the have not's. The status quo in U.S. economics is quite off-balance, but no one is to blame for it. Darwin's theory of evolution again comes into play. Adaption in such a case as our financial imbalance is not an option. Poverty among single parents is steadily on the rise. However, the choices that they make like unprotected premarital sex are totally up to it's participants. 66.6% of poverty-stricken people are single parents. The Free Trade economic system in which we live provided these people with the resources and opportunities to prosper. Because these people are financially unable to educate themelves at a higher level, is no one's fault but their own. People have the ability to choose their own paths in the walk of life, nobody is forcing anyone to be ingorant. To say that America's economic system is fair and ethical, would be an understatement. Living in an independant country full of freedoms and choices, we are more than apt to provide for ourselves. The chances for prosperity are out there at arm's reach, some people are just too lazy to get up and take care of business.

Essence of Empowerment

Empowerment is certainly not a new idea within the business arena. In fact, its concept has been around since the 1960's when American car manufactures suddenly realized that they were losing their butts to the Japanese producers. An extensive and extremely well-funded investigation for answers to the recurrent question, how do I get more out of my employees while simultaneously lowering my costs, did produce some implementable and constructive results. The topic I have chosen to investigate is the application of employee empowerment and how to get the most out of this HR "buzzword." Within my scope of discussions are topics which include effective implementation, the role of the organization, and incentives to achieve and sustain actuation. Employee empowerment, in its most basic definition, is effective delegation. The new twist that upper management has been trying desperately to achieve, is to involve the lowest level of employees in the decision-making process while making them responsible for the results of their decisions. There have been many documented examples of anxiety, mistrust and complacency in employees when this wave of "new-and-improved, successful management strategies" have been suddenly thrown upon them. Change of any kind will usually inspire resistance, especially when you are talking about extracting power from management to place in the hands of "subordinates." There are obvious methods to achieving the results that the stakeholders of an organization demand through empowerment. Increases in profitability, productivity, creativity, and a shorter time-to-market are all feasible results of empowerment. In fact, "empowerment is an extremely cost-effective means of bringing about desired changes in performance and operational effectiveness." It takes only a stout devotion of the entire organization, from the top levels downward. That's all. There are, however, key factors to its success. One of the most important key elements to take into account is the need for extensive organizational preparation to achieve effective implementation. By preparation, I mean an organizational-wide commitment to preparing both management and its staff for the changes that are about to take place. Education is one of the most effective tools in preparing for change. Remember that psychological studies determined that individuals are inherently resistant to change when they don't know the results and consequences of that change. Education of all levels within an organization will help eradicate some of the fear that's associated with change. It will also help define everyone's role after the changes are established. Additionally, this becomes an opportunity for upper management to align employees with corporate direction by disseminating vital information. One such change that must occur is the flattening of the organizational chart, whether that entails the redefining or elimination of jobs. Flattening the levels of bureaucracy eliminates the hierarchical chain of command and brings all individuals closer to the actual end product. This has its advantages since all members of the organization, then, have a feel for what it is they are actually doing. Since the utopian result of empowerment is the transference "of decision making and ownership to those individuals [at the lowest possible levels] who have the knowledge and ability to make the most appropriate decision, " these individuals are, therefore, most familiar with their end of the value chain. They theoretically can recognize what it is, exactly, that can be done more efficiently and productively to bring this product to market at lower costs. They are also able to "refine" the product since they have hands-on experience. This transference of responsibility to the employee inherently leaves more time for creative brainstorming by management to search for more proficient processes and products. Open, multilateral communication between management and staff is another vital requirement for effective implementation. Expectations must be communicated from top levels of management and vice versa for empowerment to work. These channels are one of the ways for management to offer support and direction. It is imperative for them to remain open and available to all employees. One of the largest impediments to empowerment that must be addressed in the preparation phase of implementation is corporate culture. As competition is changing rapidly to a global market economy, organizations need to realize that they too, must change to remain competitive. While culture remains one of the strongest influences on individual and organizational behavior, it also becomes one of the hardest aspects to change. Reward systems must adapt from its previous structure to one that fosters the desire to accept this necessary shift. Yet another impediment to gaining the appropriate culture within an organization is the issue of trust. In researching whether empowerment was right for Viking Glass, they discovered that many attempts at its institution had failed. The instances in which it did succeed, they noted, " . . . a distinctive atmosphere of mutual trust between employees and management . . . in the instances of less than satisfactory results, the atmosphere was noticeably less trusting." Since mistrust, at all levels, between employee and supervisor is commonplace, this must be eliminated from the culture before continuing to implement. Empowerment is potentially a very rewarding concept to business, but it requires unanimous "buy-in." To attain organizational buy-in, there must be proper motivational forces and incentives to move people in that desired direction. In addition, the reward structure must be set so that you're are compensating the appropriate actions. Incentive systems are difficult enough to design without having to worry about these additional pressures. Monetary and financial compensations are not necessarily the most important form of incentive to all people. There is abundant evidence which suggests that the most motivating of rewards tend to be nonfinancial. Studies conducted by Lawrence Lindahl in the 1940's identified the primary reasons why employees worked, "[were] 'good wages,' 'job security', and 'promotional/growth opportunities.'" Of those studied, they also reported such intangibles as "full appreciation for work done," and "feeling 'in' on things" to be what they most wanted from their jobs. Frederick Herzberg, from his research, identified money as a "maintenance" factor, or a necessity to one's job. He did conclude, however, that having it did not motivate people to do a better job. What then, does it take to get employees motivated to take responsibility and react like the owner of the company? Stock-based forms of compensation have been implemented, but to little avail. To understand how to convert the workforce into responsible "owners," one must realize that several factors do work against us. First is the issue that: "Economic research indicates that individuals are risk averse, loss averse, and tend to 'satisfice' rather than maximize- and taking cash now is safer than long-term stock ownership. Research also suggests that the value of a possession is perceived as greater than what is not possessed." Secondly, research indicates that: "...employees must see a clear link between effort and performance, performance and reward, and between the form of the reward and what they value. These links are very difficult to achieve with equity-based plans, leading to further avoidance of ownership." It's because of this research that we understand that the organization faces difficult restructuring dilemmas. They are caught in a Catch 22. They have to link rewards to achieve desired behavior, but the behavior that they desire is not identified with that reward. So, in designing effective compensation systems, one must congruently remove old incentives while adding behavior-guiding now ones. Suggested, are several strategies to accomplish an ownership perspective by rewarding with equity-based compensation. First, all activities such as goal-setting, coaching, performance evaluations, and all form of reinforcement must center on ownership. By tying an employee's understanding of how individual actions affect the whole organization through rewards, one can develop an environment which fosters empowered thinking. Second, make it a requirement of employment that all individuals take a stake in the company. Introduce the investment as part of retirement plans and pre-retirement financial planning. Lastly, thoroughly educate the employee how his or her individual actions can provide a lucrative return by explaining the swings of the market in relation to the company. While global change is driving companies to empowerment, and similar philosophies like self- managed team-based arrangements, total quality management, it is important to note that no one philosophy is entirely correct, or incorrect. By combining the best of what these philosophies have to offer and adjusting, to the best of your ability, you corporate culture to facilitate them, you are able to reap the rewards of currently suggested management ideologies. To expect them to work over night is ludicrous, however. These things do take time, because remember, you dealing with human beings here who don't like change. Be patient, persevere; it will be worth the effort. In sum, through cooperation, perseverance, and much patience, you might be able to develop an empowered atmosphere at your company. Change dictates that old philosophies are no longer valid. Through thorough preparation, education, communication, and absolute commitment you might be able to develop empowerment techniques, but to truly reap empowerment's rewards, you must remember that employee motivation is the product of your reward system.

History of Advertising

This Essay is for People that are in VCE up to Elderly People Advertising is dated back to the Christian Era. One of the first known methods of advertising was outdoor signs, they would be painted on the wall of a building and were usually very eye catching. Archaeologists have found signs in the ruins of ancient Rome and Pompeii which advertised travelers to go to a tavern situated in another town. In about the 1440's there was an invention of a movable-type of advertising which was a printing press. In the 16th century some companies had a trade mark which was a two or three dimensional picture or sign. In both volume and technique, advertising has made its greatest advances in the U.S. In the early stages of U.S. advertising it was hard and expensive to advertise nationally because the U.S. was still undeveloped and there was little of no means of transport, distribution or communication. Eventually certain type of manufactures thought of the idea of bypassing wholesalers, retailers and using catalogs. Mail orders and pamphlets appeared around the 1870's. Late in the 19th century many American firms began to market packaged goods under brand names. Previously consumers had not been aware of or influenced by brand names. The first product that had brand names were soap products. In the 1880's a few brands came out and they were Ivory, Pears, Sapolio, Colgate, Kirks American Family and Packer's. Not long after brands such as Royal baking powder, Quaker oats, Bakers chocolate, Hire's root beer, Regal shoes and Waterman's pens were nationally advertised. In the early 1900's America began to become aware of such brand names like Bon Ami, Wrigley and Coca-Cola. After World War 1 advertising developed into a business so big that it was almost a trademark of America itself through the eyes of the rest of the world. This was expanded by technical improvements which made transportation, communication and graphics work easier, cheaper and better. The invention of electricity led to the illuminated outdoor poster, photoengraving and other modern printing inventions helped both editorial and advertising departments of printed journals. In the 1920's the radio was invented and this developed a whole new technique of selling, by voice. During World War 2 the American advertising industry founded the war advertising council this used modern advertising to strengthen the American war effort. The organization still continued after the war was over as ‘The Advertising Council' this was used to function for the publics interest. Printed and broadcasted media contributed millions of dollars worth of advertising time and space to such projects each year. The most significant Advertising development after the war was Television. Television forced the advertising industry to use better techniques of selling because they had to use visual and voice. Since VCR's have been invented Advertisers have been under threat because some viewers edit out the commercials when recording the program or they fast forward them. In all advertising has advanced a lot in the past and I believe that it will keep on getting more and more advanced with the needs of society.

Economic Consequences of Software Crime

In 1996 worldwide illegal copying of domestic and international software cost $15.2 billion to the software industry, with a loss of $5.1 billion in the North America alone. Some sources put the total up-to-date losses, due to software crime, as high as $4.7 trillion. On the next page is a regional breakdown of software piracy losses for 1994. Estimates show that over 40 percent of North American software company revenues are generated overseas, yet nearly 85 percent of the software industry's piracy losses occurred outside of North America. The Software Publishers Association (SPA) indicated that approximately 35 percent of the business software in the North America was obtained illegally. In fact, 30 percent of the piracy occurs in corporate settings. In a corporate setting or business, every computer must have its own set of original software and the appropriate number of manuals. It is illegal for a corporation or business to purchase a single set of original s! oftware and then load that software onto more than one computer, or lend, copy or distribute software for any reason without the prior written consent of the software manufacturer. Many software managers are concerned with the legal compliance, along with asset management and costs to their organizations. Many firms involve their legal departments and human resources in regards to software distribution and licensing. Information can qualify to be property in two ways; patent law and copyright laws which are creations of federal statutes, which are subject to Constitutional authority. In order for the government to prosecute the unauthorized copying of computerized information as theft, it must first rely on other theories of information-as-property. Trade secret laws are created by provincial law, and most jurisdictions have laws that criminalize the violations of a trade-secret holder's rights. The definition of a trade secret varies somewhat from province to province, but commonly have the same elements. For example, the information must be secret, not of public knowledge or of general knowledge in the trade or business. A court will allow a trade secret to be used by someone who discovered or developed the trade secret independently if the holder takes adequate precautions to protect the secret. In 1964, the National Copyright Office began to register software as a form of literary expression. The office based its decision on White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo, where the Supreme Court determined that a piano roll used in a player piano did not infringe upon copyrighted music because the roll was part of a mechanical device. Since a computer program is textual, like a book, yet also mechanical, like the piano roll in White-Smith, the Copyright Office granted copyright protection under the rule of doubt. In 1974, the government created the Natural Commission on New Technological Uses (CONTU) to investigate whether the evolving computer technology field outpaced the existing copyright laws and also to determine the extent of copyright protection for computer programs. CONTU concluded that while copyright protection should extend beyond the literal source code of a computer program, evolving case law should determine the extent of protection. The commission also felt copyright was the best alternative among existing intellectual property protective mechanisms. CONTU rejected trade secret and patents as viable protective mechanisms. The CONTU report resulted in the 1980 Computer Software Act, and the report acts as informal legislative history to aid the courts in interpreting the Act. In 1980, the Copyright Act was amended to explicitly include computer programs. It now states that it is illegal to make or to distribute copies of copyrighted material without authorization, except for the user's right to make a single backup copy for archival purposes. Any written material (including computer programs) fixed in a tangible form (written somewhere - i.e. printout) is considered copyrighted without any additional action on the part of the author. Therefore, it is not necessary that a copy of the software program be deposited with the National Copyright Office for the program to be protected as copyrighted. With that in mind a copyright is a property right only. In order to prevent anyone from selling your software programs, you must ask a (federal) court to stop that person by an injunction and to give you damages for the injury they have done to you by selling the program. The Software Rental Amendments Act was approved in 1990. This Act prohibits the commercial rental, leasing or lending of software without the express written permission of the copyright holder. Another amendment to the Copyright Act was passed in 1992. This amendment made software piracy a federal offense, and instituted criminal penalties for copyright infringement of software. The penalties can include imprisonment of up to five years, fines up to $250,000 or both for unauthorized reproduction or distribution of 10 or more copies of software with a total retail value exceeding $2,500 or more. According to federal law duplicating software for profit, making multiple copies for use by different users within an organization, and giving an unauthorized copy to someone else is prohibited. Under this law if anyone is caught with the pirated software, an individual or the individual's company can be tried under both civil and criminal law. A Civil action may be established for injunction, actual damages (which includes the infringer's profits) or statutory damages up to $100,000 per infringement. The criminal penalties for copyright infringement can result in fines up to $250,000 and a jail term up to five years for the first offense and ten years for a second offense. When software is counterfeit or copied, the software developer loses their revenue and the whole software industry feels the effect of piracy. All software developers spend a lot of time and money in developing software for public use. A portion of every dollar spent in purchasing original softwar! e is funneled back into research and development of new software. Software piracy can be found in three forms: software counterfeiting, which is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software in a form that is designed to make it appear to be a legitimate program; Hard disk loading, whereby computer dealers load unauthorized copies of software onto the hard disks of personal computers, which acts as an incentive for the end user to buy the hardware from that particular dealer; and downloading of copyrighted software to users connected by modem to electronic bulletin boards and/or the Internet. When software is pirated the consumer pays for that cost by new software and/or upgrade version being more expensive. Federal appellate courts have determined that operating systems, object code and software contained in ROMs are protected by copyright. Some lower federal courts have also determined that microcode (the instructions set on microprocessor chips) and the look and feel of computer screens is subject to copyright protection. Which has created major problems for the widespread development of multimedia applications with regards to clearing copyright for small elements of text, images, video and sound. The United States Government has been an active participant in protecting the rights of the software industry. When the Business Software Alliance (BSA) conducts a raid, Federal Marshals or local law enforcement officials participate as well. An organization known as the Software Publishers Association (SPA) is the principal trade association of the PC software industry. SPA works closely with the FBI and has also written an enforcement manual for the FBI to help them investigate pirate bulletin board systems and organizations (audits). With the help of the FBI, the result of enforcement actions resulted in recoveries from anti-piracy actions totaling $16 million since the program started in 1990. The Software Publishers Association (SPA) funds an educational program to inform individuals and corporations about software use and the law. This program provides all PC users with the tools needed to comply with copyright law and become software legal. The SPA also publishes brochures free of charge about the legal use of software for individuals and businesses. Also available to help corporations understand the copyright law is a 12-minute videotape, which is composed of the most commonly asked questions and answers to them. The video tape is available in French and Spanish and all together over 35,000 copies of the tape had been sold. The SPA has also compiled a free Self-Audit Kit with which organizations can examine their software use practices. Included in the kit, is a software inventory management program designed to help an organization track their commercial software programs that are on all their hard disks. The program searches the PC's hard disk for more than 1300 of the most common programs used in business. Also available is the SPA Software Management Guide which helps companies audit their current software policies, educate employees about the legal use of software, and establish procedures to purchase, register, upgrade and backup computing systems. The guide, in addition, provides an Internal Controls Analysis and Questionnaire. The guide also contains all of the SPA's current anti-piracy materials. The software industry is facing the challenges of more sophisticated network environments, greater competition among software companies along with hardware manufacturers. At this moment more software than ever before is distributed on a high volume, mass marketed basis. There are many types of software out on the market and the amount is increasing every day. They range from graphical user interfaces for application programs such as mass-market spreadsheets, to more sophisticated technical software used to design integrated circuits. The use of software plays a more vital role in our daily lives than it ever has. Such as embedded software, which is critical to equipment in such locations as a doctor's office or an automotive shop. The instrument and devices found there depend more and more on software, because software provides the flexibility to meet the many different needs to the end user. As our lives our shaped and enhanced more by technology, there is already a greater demand that impacts the software industry. One of the main concerns of the software industry is how to deal with the issues of software licensing. More and more customers want customized software suited for their business or personal need, and expect the software development firms to accommodate to their wishes. The other side of this issue is that software development firms are concerned with unrealized revenue and excess costs in the form of software piracy, unauthorized use, excess discounts and lengthened sales cycles. For the customer and the software development firm, all of these have high administrative costs in regards to software programs. Software licensing policies were originally a result of software developer's need to protect their revenue base in the face of potential piracy. Product delivery for software is made up of a number of different components, which are referred to as software licensing. The following factors are taken into consideration when determining a cost for a software license; physical delivery pricing, metric discounts, license periods support and maintenance, license management Tech support, change in use bug fixes and Platform Migration Product enhancements. The most commonly found type of software license found in business is known as a network license. There are four types of categories that are classified as a network license. Concurrent use licenses authorize a specified number of users to access and execute licensed software at any time. Site licenses authorize use at a single site, but are slowly being phased out and replaced by enterprise licenses. Enterprise licenses cover all sites within a corporation because of more virtual computing environments. Node licenses are also slowly being phased out because they are mainly used in a client/server environment, since the licensed software may be used only on a specified workstation in which a user must log on to in order to access and execute the software application. Currently the trend in a network system is to use measurement software, which allows vendors to be more flexible in licensing arrangements. This management software monitors and restricts the number of users or clients who may access and execute the application software at any one time. This is significant because a user pays only for needed use and a vendor can monitor such use to protect intellectual property. A new type of license that is emerging is known as a currency-based license. This type of license works on the basis that it provides to the end user a specified dollar amount of software licenses. This allows licenses to cover different business application software, so long as the total value in use at a given time is less than the amount stipulated in the license. Another type of license emerging is known as a platform-independent licensing. Which permits software to be used on a variety of different computer systems within a business, instead of buying a different license for each version of the same software used by different systems. The most common type of licensing is known as shrink-wrap, the concept behind this that the licenses terms are deemed accepted once the end user breaks a shrink-wrap seal or opens a sealed envelope containing the software. A reason for these new types of licensing is that when software licensing was first introduced, the software development firms assumed that most businesses would use the software for a 8 to 10 hour period. Yet, did not take into consideration that with the advancement of technology, more businesses would want a floating license across the world for 24 hours. This made it so it was not cost effective for the software development firm. A floating license is a license that is made available to anyone on a network. The licenses are not locked to particular workstations, instead they float to modes on the network. Shareware, freeware and public domain are different types of software available to the end user, and are distinguished by different rules about how programs may be distributed, copied, used and modified. The term shareware refers to software that is distributed at a low cost, but which usually requires a payment after a certain time period and registration for full use. Copies of this software are offered on a trial basis, the end user is free to try a scaled down version of the program. If the end user wants the shareware program, included in the program is information specifying how to register the program and what fee is required. Once registered the end user will typically receive a printed manual, an updated copy of the software (often with additional features), and the legal right to use the program in their home or business. The advantage that shareware has is that it lets the end user thoroughly test a program to see if it's useful before making a purchase. The ! authors of shareware programs retain their copyright on the contents, and as other copyrighted software should not be pirated. Freeware is also distributed at a very low cost and like shareware is found mainly on the Internet. The authors of the freeware program do not expect payment for their software. Typically, freeware programs are small utilities or incomplete programs that are released by authors for the potential benefit to others, but the drawback to this is that there is no technical support. Public domain software is generally found on the Internet and is released without any condition upon its use. It may be copied, modified and distributed as the end user wishes to do. A license manager is a system utility-like application that controls or monitors the use of another end-user application. It is generally implemented to protect intellectual property (meaning to stop illegal copying) and/or to become more competitive by offering new ways in which to evaluate, purchase and pay for software. Since the license manager controls the number of application users, there is not a need to control the number of application copies. This process lets the end user run one or more applications between machines, without violating the terms of the license agreement. SPA has created a program that companies can use to help discover and correct problems before they result in legal actions, fines and also negative publicity. The eight point program is as follows: 1. Appoint a software manager to implement and monitor all aspects of company software policy. 2. Implement a software codes of ethics for everyone to adhere to. The ethics should state that copyrighted software, except for backup and archival purposes, is a violation of the law. 3. Establish a procedure for acquiring and registering software. Determine your companies software needs, evaluate software packages, and also have supervisors approve the plans. Keep the lines of communication open. 4. Establish and maintain a software log. The log should state the date of when the software was acquired, the registration of it, serial number, network version, location of where the software is in use, where the original is, licensing agreement and the location of the original disks. 5. Conduct periodic audits or on an as needed basis comparing the software log and/or other purchase records. 6. Establish a program to educate and train your employees about every aspect of software and its uses. 7. Maintain a library of software licenses and provide users with copies of the agreement. 8. Having done the above seven points, the company can benefit by having obtained software legally, receive full documentation, technical support when needed and also upgrade notices. Patents do not cover specific systems, instead they cover particular techniques that can be used to build systems or particular features that systems can offer. Patent grants the inventor a 17 year monopoly on its use. Once a technique or feature is patented, it may not be used in a system without the permission of the patent-holder even if it is implemented in a different way. Since a computer program usually uses several techniques and provides many features, it can infringe many patents at once. A computer program is built out of ideal mathematical objects whose behavior is defined, not modeled approximately, by abstract rules. An example of this is when Borland International, Inc. complained that a federal court decision gave Lotus Development Corp. the benefit of patent protection to Lotus 1-2-3 menu commands and their order, but failed to require Lotus to meet the requirements of patent law, including novelty, examination and contribution to the prior art. The Supreme Court sided with the decision that one entity cannot own the user interface to programs. This would include such components as file formats, menu structures and programming languages. Software license agreements emerged as the most popular means of protection of proprietary rights in computer software. They coexist with other forms of intellectual property rights as patent and copyright. Software license agreements serve several functions in transactions involving the transfer of computer technology. One of the most important legal functions is the protection of the proprietary rights of the licenser in the transferred software. Other functions include controlling the revenue generated by licensed software and determining the rights and responsibilities of the parties regarding the performance of the licensed technology. Issues related to these functions include the applicability of Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code, including offer and disclaimer of warranties, determining the appropriate types of licenses to utilize, such as single users/CPU licenses, Site/enterprise licenses and network/concurrent licenses. Trade secret, copyright and patent law are static forms of protection in the sense that they may exist independently of any underlying business transactions and do not necessarily require any transfer of intellectual property from one party to another. Whereas, the need for a license agreement usually arises as one of the contractual forms of protection when the underlying business transaction involves the transfer of intellectual property, such as computer software. Transactions involving the transfer of computer software are subject to both federal and provincial laws. Generally, provincial law governs contractual and trade secrets aspects of the transaction, while federal law governs aspects related to patent, copyright and antitrust issues. Each province has its own version of a trade secret, the common thread through these province-specific laws is that if you show that you are seriously treated information as confidential and that the confidential information helped your competitive position, you can stop others from using it if the information was improperly acquired by them, and even collect damages from the wrongdoers. A computer is useless without software. The two types of software typically found on a computer are operating systems software and application software. Operating system software provides an interface that makes it easier to develop programs for the system by reducing the amount of code that must be written. The operating system acts as an interface between the computer hardware, application programs and the end user. Application software consists of one or more computer programs that fulfill a specific function for the user like word processing, bookkeeping or financial analysis. Two legal cases recently within the last few years has brought to light the controversy regarding the copyright protection of software elements. Until 1992, most of the federal courts followed the decision in Whenlan v Jaslow Dental Laboratory as a precedent for similar cases. Whenlan, a small software company wrote a accounting program for Jaslow Dental Laboratory company. Jaslow rewrote the software to run on personal computers and proceeded to sell the product. The software was identical to Whenlans in the data structures, logic, and the program structure, except for the source code. Jaslow argued that the duplicated elements were part by the of the idea - not the expression. The court in response felt that the data structures, logic, and the program structure comprised to make a single function of a computer program, therefore copyright protection should be given to those elements also. In 1992, this protection was weakened by Computer Associates v. Altai, Inc. , when Altai a software developer was accused of copying various modules of a software package developed by Computer Associates which controlled the running of applications on IBM mainframes. The court rejected Whelan's premise that a computer program embodies one function because programs are made up of sub-routines that contain their own idea. The court recognized that this would narrow the scope of software copyright protection and found this in accordance with the Government's intent of computer programs with copyright. This is why currently software copyright is not as broad as it once was. All the above mentioned licenses and anti-piracy precautions cost billions of dollars each year, in both direct and opportunity costs. These costs are shared by anybody that is involved with any aspect of the software industry. As the future of approaches, more and more people are gaining experience with technology. That experience doesn't come without a price. That price is the power to manipulate technology for personal gain which usually results in a detriment -typically financial-to others. Bibliography: Brandel, William, "Licensing stymies users," URL:"http://www.viman.com/license/license.html#policy", Viman Software, Inc., 1994. Business Software Alliance, "Software Piracy and the Law," URL:"http://www.bsa.org/bsa/docs/soft_pl.html", Business Software Alliance, 1995. Software Publishers Association, "SPA Anti-Piracy Backgrounder," URL:"http://www.spa.org/piracy/pi_back.htm", Software Publishers Association, 1995. Business Software Alliance, "Did You Know?," URL:"http://www.bsa.org/cgi-bin-bsa.org/seconds.cgi?", Business Software Alliance, 1997. The Economist, "Slipping A Disk" URL: "http://www.economist.com/issue/27-07-96/wbsfl.gif", The Economist, 1994. Business Software Alliance, "Software Piracy," URL: "http://www.bsa.org/privacy/privacy.html", Business Software Alliance, 1997.

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